Throughout history, people have attempted to influence the
gender of their unborn offspring by following varied and sometimes bizarre
procedures. In medieval Europe, prospective parents would place a hammer under
the bed to help them conceive a boy, or a pair of scissors to conceive a girl.
Other practices were based on the ancient belief that semen from the right
testicle created male offspring and that from the left testicle created
females. As late as the eighteenth century, European men might tie off or
remove their left testicle to increase the chances of getting a male heir.
In some cultures, efforts to control the sex of offspring
has had a darker outcome— female infanticide. In ancient Greece, the murder of
female infants was so common that the male:female ratio in some areas
approached 4:1. In some parts of rural India, hundreds of families admitted to
female infanticide as late as the 1990s. In 1997, the World Health Organisation
reported population data showing that about 50 million women were “missing” in
China, likely because of selective abortion of female fetuses and
institutionalized neglect of female children.
In recent times, sex-specific abortion has replaced much of
the traditional female infanticide. For a fee, some companies offer amniocentesis
and ultrasound tests for prenatal sex determination. Studies in India estimate
that hundreds of thousands of fetuses are aborted each year because they are
female. As a result of sex-selective abortion, the female:male ratio in India
was 927:1000 in 1991. In some northern states, the ratio was as low as
600:1000.
In Western industrial countries, new genetics and
reproductive technologies offer parents ways to select their children’s gender
prior to implantation of the embryo in the uterus—called preimplantation gender
selection (PGS). Following in vitro fertilization, embryos are biopsied and
assessed for gender. Only sex- selected embryos are then implanted. The
simplest method involves separating X and Y chromosome-bearing spermatozoa
based on their DNA content. Because of the difference in size of the X and Y
chromosomes, X-bearing sperm contain 2.8 to 3.0 percent more DNA than Y-bearing
sperm. Sperm samples are treated with a fluorescent DNA stain, then passed
through a laser beam in a Fluorescence-Activated Cell Sorter (FACS) machine
that separates the sperm into two fractions based on the intensity of their
DNA-fluorescence. The sorted sperm are then used for standard intrauterine
insemination.
The emerging PGS methods raise a number of legal and ethical
issues. Some people feel that prospective parents have the legal right to use
sex-selection techniques as part of their fundamental procreative liberty.
Proponents state that PGS will reduce the suffering of many families. For
example, people at risk for transmitting X-linked diseases such as hemophilia
or Duchenne muscular dystrophy can now enhance their chance of conceiving a
female child, who will not express the disease.
The majority of people who undertake PGS, however, do so for
nonmedical reasons—to “balance” their families. A possible argument in favor of
this use is that the ability to intentionally select the sex of an offspring
may reduce overpopulation and economic burdens for families who would
repeatedly reproduce to get the desired gender. By the same token, PGS may
reduce the number of abortions. It is also possible that PGS may increase the
happiness of both parents and children, as the children would be more “wanted.”
On the other hand, some argue that PGS serves neither the
individual nor the common good. They argue that PGS is inherently sexist,
having its basis in the idea that one sex is superior to the other, and leads
to an increase in linking a child’s worth to gender. Other critics fear that
social approval of PGS will open the door to other genetic manipulations of
children’s characteristics. It is difficult to predict the full effects that PGS
will bring to the world. But the gender-selection genie is now out of the
bottle and is unwilling to return.
Investigate the references and links below to help you
understand some of the issues that surround the topic of gender selection.
Answer the following questions:
1. What do you think are valid arguments for and against the
use of PGS?
2. A generally accepted moral and legal concept is that of
reproductive autonomy—the freedom to make individual reproductive decisions
without external interference. Are there circumstances under which reproductive
autonomy should be restricted?
3. What do you think are the reasons that some societies
practice female infanticide and prefer the birth of male children?
4. If safe and efficient methods of PGS were available to
you, do you think that you would use them to help you with family planning?
Under what circumstances might you use them?
References for further reading:
The above questions, and others, are explored in a series of
articles in the American Journal of Bioethics, Volume 1 (2001). See the article
by J. A. Robertson on pages 2–9, for a summary of the moral and legal issues
surrounding PGS.
“ Gendercide Watch” Web site http://www.gendercide.org/
The Genetics and IVF Institute (Fairfax, Virginia) is
presently using PGS techniques based on sperm sorting, in an FDA-approved
clinical trial. As of 2008, over 1000 human pregnancies have resulted, with an
approximately 80 percent success rate. Read about these methods on their Web
site: http://www.microsort.com/
Adopted from: Concepts of Genetics 11th edition by Klug, Cummings, Spencer, Palladino p.193
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ReplyDeleteFemale feticide is the selective abortion/elimination of the female child, done deliberately by the mother, after the detection of the child’s gender through medical tests. This is usually done under familial pressure from the husband or the in-laws or even the woman’s parents.
ReplyDelete"Male Children are a Better Investment."
"Female Children Are a Gamble."
"Women Don't Have Status in Society."
"Foul Medical Ethics."
"Industrial Growth."
As opposed to CVS and amniocentesis, ultrasound technology is cheaper and within easy reach of the lower economic strata of society. It is also easily accessible in a hospital/clinic nearby with mediocre credentials. Unfortunately, the accuracy of the ultrasound is not 100% until the fetus is twenty weeks old. Consequently, the children aborted by those enthusiastic parents may just be the little prince they were hoping for.
When calculated for the entire population, the widespread disparity is more visible and alarming and may prove critical for the country’s development in political, economic, and emotional spheres.
Sex selection, refers to families attempting to influence or select the sex of their baby either through low-technology or high-technology means. Sexual selection has been stronger in humans than is often assumed. Cultural reasons; for example, those of Indian or Asian culture may prefer boys
ReplyDeletePreventing genetic disease
Family rebuilding for couples who have lost a child and want to have another child of that gender
Family balancing for couples who already have a child of one sex and want to ensure they have a child of the other.A couple may have always dreamed of having a child of a particular sex and want to ensure that happens.
Girls are still being sexually abused and our society still doesn’t seem to be able to protect them. We also need to increase awareness of the other types of child maltreatment that affect both boys and girls, and develop effective strategies to detect and prevent it. Genetics genesis have also become much more aware of the neglect and abuse of girls in other countries Pre-implantation Genetic Screening (PGS) is a comprehensive chromosome screening that examines embryos for chromosomal abnormalities. All 24 chromosomes (22 autosomes plus X and Y) are examined to evaluate any gains or losses of chromosomes, also known as aneuploidy. PGS allows for individuals and couples to achieve a healthy baby with additional information that may:
Reduce the likelihood of miscarriage, Decrease the risk of abnormal pregnancy, Reduce the amount of time and additional costs inferred with multiple IVF cycles. If you decide to use natural family planning, you can reduce your risk of accidental pregnancy by making sure you are taught natural family planning by a suitably qualified teacher, and then making sure you follow their instructions and advice.It takes commitment and practice to use natural family planning this effectively.
Sex selection for non-medical reasons should be discouraged because it poses a risk of unwarranted gender bias, social harm, and results in the diversion of medical resources from genuine medical need. We critically examine the arguments presented against sex selection using preimplantation genetic diagnosis. Arguments that sex selection should be available, at least within privately funded health care. Female infanticide is more common than male infanticide, and in some countries, particularly India and China, is likely to have serious consequences on the balance of the sexes in the population. The reasons behind it are almost always cultural, rather than directly religious. Female infanticide is the most common form of infanticide, both nowadays and in the past. This practice is mainly due to the fact that, in some cultures, males are considered to be socially more valuable than women. Moreover, female infanticide is sometimes related to the control of the population.
ReplyDeleteAn existing and widely accepted restriction of reproduction by law incest in order to protect the following generations from harm caused by an aggravation of the individual genome, a social and legal rule limits free choice of a partner. Whether a similar legislation against vertical transmission of germ line defects could make sense and can be justified as to be discussed, this means of a strong controlled reproductive autonomy. By reproductive autonomy, I mean the power to decide when, if at all, to have children; also, many but not all of the choices relevant to reproduction. I focus here on decisions about whether and when to have children. Women should also generally determine how their pregnancy will be carried out and how the birth will happen. Sometimes genders selection can be "non-medical" or "elective." In such cases, a child of a specific gender is desired without obvious medical indications. The most frequent indication for such gender selection is "family balancing," when one gender is already represented in the family unit and the other gender is desired. Over the past several years we have seen a marked increase in patients coming to us specifically for sex selection. Once they have made a decision of this magnitude they prefer to go ahead with PDS. We do not recommend doing PGD only for sex selection because once we are already performing an embryo biopsy on the embryos we think it is useful to obtain the aneuploidy testing as well.
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ReplyDelete1. I think the valid arguments for the use of PGS are suffering of many families related genetic x linked inheritance,balance their families by reducing overpopulation and economic burden, reduce the chances of abortion.And against to PGS is inherently sexist that one sex is superior to the other, fear that social approval that prechange in genetic manipulations of childs characteristics.
ReplyDelete2.yes , reproductive autonomy have to be restricted in stutaions like abortion, abortion is one of the most controversial issues in today's world. People tend to turn to the law when trying to decide what is the best possible solution to an unwanted pregnancy because of disruption of education or employment, poverty,lack of support from father ,desire to provide for existing children.
3. i think are the reasons that some societies practice female infanticide and prefer the birth of male children in india are their where we have dowry system in india where poor people cant afford for marriage of girl , some pepole tend to think that his chid (boy) are the 1 who continues fame and race of their familes and parents .
4. i dont want to use PGS if safe methods are available as i dont mind what ever the child is boy or girl unless in case of gentic diagnosis of any mutations in inheritance.
1.Female infant is the major cause for performing most technological advance methods to prenatal diagnosis. In most of the Asian countries like India and china a large number of female foeticides are seen as they prefer to have a boy child mostly.
ReplyDelete2.Reproductive autonomy is central to women's welfare both because childbearing takes place in women's bodies and because they are
generally expected to take primary responsibility for child rearing. In 2005, the factors that influence their autonomy most strongly are poverty and belief systems that devalue such autonomy. Unfortunately, such autonomy is a low priority for most societies, or is anathema to their belief systems altogether. This situation is doubly sad because women's reproductive autonomy is intrinsically valuable for women and also instrumentally valuable for the welfare of humankind.
3.In most government policies like china, there is highly intrusive policy to limit the number of births per family. if any unauthorized are notices by government workers who monitor families for birth control may pressurize the couple even in the eight and ninth month of pregnancy. If not it my result in imposing steep penalities,psychological coercion,loss of employement and even confiscation of property in order to control the massive growth of population.
But the root for female infanticide is different in india. In india it is mainly occur due to dowry system that is major cause for female infanticide. There is a saying in Indian culture that “bringing up a daughter is like watering a neighbour’s plant”. In both the countries it is very happy for giving birth to a male infant than a female because they feel that it continues their families.
PGS allows for individuals and couples to achieve a healthy baby with additional information that may:
• Reduce the likelihood of miscarriage
• Decrease the risk of abnormal pregnancy
• Reduce the amount of time and additional costs inferred with multiple IVF cycles
• Increase the likelihood of pregnancy with single embryo transfers (eSET)
PGS(preimplantation gender selection) has both positives and negative effects. Some of the positive arguments about PGS are it reduces the risk for transmitting X-linked diseases such as hemophilia or Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and enhance their chance of conceiving a female child, who will not express the disease. Some negative arguments in some of the countries like India and china is that people are using PGS to have only boys and they are trying to avoid girls because of their economic status, to continue their family race to next generation or or due to securety problems the parents are using PGS to avoid girls which is not correct.
ReplyDeleteReproductive autonomy should be restricted because, the people in the society are still believing many things which are scientifically disproved. There are many people with religious believes so these people mentally fix that their further life will be good only if they will have a boy child so that they will not have any future money problem and also in security purpose. There are some people who are killing the girl baby by abortion at early stages of pregnancy as their parents or husband forces them to do so or even by their own interest sometimes. If at all they have that freedom of decision then everyone chooses boys then after some time there will be only boys in the society.
There are people who practice female infamticide and prefer the birth of male children due to several different reasons. They are :
Male children has many economic benefits.
Female children has to be taken more care than male children.
Male child continues their race.
Female child has many security problems.
If safe and efficient methods of PGS were available to me i choose to use them only to correct genetical disorders or mutations were observed otherwise whatever the child maybe (either boy or girl) i accept it as its natural without any scientific utilisation.
1. For:
ReplyDelete-Some families prefer to have a balance of children where they have equal numbers and where one gender does not dominate over the other
-Decrease abortions
-Increase happiness of both parent's desire of gender (i.e, father wants son and mother wants daughter)
Against:
-PGS is sexist
-Genetic changes from PGS will occur
2. I believe reproductive autonomy should be restricted. Letting individuals do what they want to do to themselves regarding their reproductive manner is very wrong. I go by the basis of you are who you are. I am a strong believer of God and God created all of us, both inside and outside. He made us who we each are for specific reasons that we all do not know. Reproductive autonomy destroys his creation and may and will affect those, who execute this, negatively.
3. -Parents, especially fathers, may think that having female children is too much responsibility as they may think females undergo many more changes to their bodies
-Females tend to want more from their parents
-Fathers prefer sons as father and son tend to link better than father and daughter
4. I may use PGS if it were safe and efficient only if this does absolutely no harm to the infant and both parents agree on the terms
1.Valid arguments can be made both for and against preimplantation gender selection (PGS).
ReplyDeleteFor:
•Decrease abortions
•PGS will reduce the suffering of many families. For example, people at risk for transmitting X-linked diseases such as hemophilia or Duchenne muscular dystrophy can now enhance their chance of conceiving a female child, who will not express the disease.
•PGS allows for individuals and couples to achieve a healthy baby with additional information that may: Reduce the likelihood of miscarriage, Decrease the risk of abnormal pregnancy, Reduce the amount of time and additional costs inferred with multiple IVF cycles and Increase the likelihood of pregnancy with single embryo transfers (eSET)
Against:
•PGS is inherently sexist, having its basis in the idea that one sex is superior to the other, and leads to an increase in linking a child’s worth to gender.
•Social approval of PGS will open the door to other genetic manipulations of children’s characteristics. It is difficult to predict the full effects that PGS will bring to the world.
2.Reproductive autonomy is having the power to decide about and control matters related to contraceptive use, pregnancy, and childbearing. Reproductive autonomy is central to women’s welfare both because childbearing takes place in women’s bodies and because they are generally expected to take primary responsibility for child rearing. However, there are circumstances under which reproductive autonomy should be restricted. It must be restricted as in the matter of abortion, aborting a child because she is not of the male gender whether it is the decision of the mother, or it is influenced by the culture or belief that males are superior or would be more beneficial to the family. If restriction is not placed and majority of persons choose to have male children, males will vastly outnumber females and lead to imbalance in the population.
3.Some societies practice female infanticide and prefer the birth of male children because:
•They believe the male gender is superior to female
•The desire to carry on the family name
•Government policies like in china where there is highly intrusive policy to limit the number of births per family there tend to be more female infanticide.
4.If safe and efficient methods of PGS were available I would only use it in cases of genetic disorders but not to select the gender of the child.
Pre-Implantation Genetic Screening (PGS), is an IVF procedure designed to examine your embryos for chromosomal abnormalities. An embryo biopsy is taken either at day 3 or day 5 and all 24 chromosomes are examined—the 22 non-sex chromosomes plus the two sex chromosomes (X & Y) in time for your embryo transfer. Chromosomal abnormalities can result in aneuploidy (embryos having the wrong number of chromosomes – i.e. extra copy of chromosome 21 also known as Downs Syndrome), translocations (chromosomes incorrectly rearranged), or other chromosome alterations that may be clinically significant. PGS aims at improving pregnancy and live birth rates by screening your embryos for chromosomal abnormalities.PGS testing can have multiple benefits for individuals looking to have a child, including:
ReplyDeleteWith the information gained from PGS testing, the number of embryos with an incorrect number of chromosomes can be minimized before transfer to the womb.
The most common reason for a miscarriage is due to chromosome abnormalities. With an understanding of abnormal chromosomes through PGS, there can be fewer abnormal embryos transferred, and subsequently fewer miscarriages.
Having the chromosome status of each embryo typically increases the likelihood of achieving pregnancy with IVF.
Having PGS as a tool in your reproductive care can provide you and your physician with more information about your embryos and aid in minimizing the risk of transferring embryos with chromosomal abnormalities.